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The study determined that the )Tj T* (nuclear accident risk was small - almost )Tj T* (negligible compared with more common )Tj T* (risks.)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (The WASH 1400 risk assessment was )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (subsequently reviewed by a Risk )Tj T* (Assessment Review Group in 1977 \(the )Tj T* (Lewis Report\) that concluded that "they )Tj T* (were unable to determine whether the )Tj T* (absolute probabilities of accident )Tj T* (sequences in WASH 1400 are high or low, )Tj T* (but believes that the error bounds on those )Tj T* (estimates are, in general, greatly )Tj T* (understated." 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The fault )Tj T* (tree/event tree approach )Tj T* (coupled with an adequate )Tj T* (data base is the best )Tj T* (available tool with which to )Tj T* (quantify these probabilities.)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (WASH-1400 made clear the )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (importance to reactor safety )Tj T* (discussions of accident )Tj T* (consequences other than )Tj T* (early fatalities. )Tj -3.2 -2.72 Td (The NRC accepted the findings of the Risk )Tj T* (Assessment Review Group and issued a )Tj T* (statement which said in part:)Tj 6.4 -2.72 Td (The )Tj T* (Commission )Tj T* (accepts the )Tj T* (Review Group )Tj T* (Report's )Tj T* (conclusion )Tj T* (that absolute )Tj T* (values of the )Tj T* (risks )Tj T* (presented by )Tj T* (WASH-1400 )Tj T* (should not be )Tj T* (used )Tj T* (uncritically )Tj T* (either in the )Tj T* (regulatory )Tj T* (process or for )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (public policy )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (purposes and )Tj T* (has taken and )Tj T* (will continue to )Tj T* (take steps to )Tj ET EMC /Article <>BDC BT /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 174.3623 326.7973 Tm ( )Tj ET EMC /Article <>BDC 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg BT /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 757.5139 Tm (of Nuclear Safety )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Since Three Mile )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Island )Tj 0 0 0 rg /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 695.3968 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 695.3968 Tm (Megawatts and )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Megatons: A )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Turning Point in )Tj 0 -1.64 TD (the Nuclear Age)Tj 0 0 0 rg /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 581.5476 649.1245 Tm ( )Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 616.0804 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 616.0804 Tm (Nuclear Energy: )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (An Introduction )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (to the Concepts, )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Systems, and )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Applications of )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Nuclear )Tj 0 -1.64 TD (Processes)Tj 0 0 0 rg /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 554.1681 526.1988 Tm ( )Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 493.1546 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 493.1546 Tm (Nuclear )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Engineering: )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Theory and )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Technology of )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Commercial )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Nuclear Power )Tj 0 0 0 rg /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 387.4283 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 387.4283 Tm (Nuclear Power: A )Tj T* (Reference )Tj 0 -1.64 TD (Handbook)Tj 0 0 0 rg /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 552.9723 355.6924 Tm ( )Tj /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 322.6483 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 322.6483 Tm ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg (Nuclear Reactor )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Engineering: )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Reactor Systems )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Engineering )Tj 0 0 0 rg /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 245.9948 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 245.9948 Tm (Radiation )Tj T* (Protection: A )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Guide for )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Scientists, )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Regulators, and )Tj 0 -1.64 TD (Physician)Tj /TT0 1 Tf (s)Tj 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 555.9095 170.6496 Tm ( )Tj 0 0 0 rg /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 137.1214 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 137.1214 Tm (Red Atom: )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Russia's Nuclear )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Power Program )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (from Stalin to )Tj 0 -1.386 TD (Today )Tj 0 0 0 rg /T1_1 1 Tf 6.8186 0 0 6.8186 486.8142 45.9315 Tm (l)Tj /TT0 1 Tf ( )Tj 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 45.9315 Tm (Rickover: The )Tj ET EMC /Artifact <>BDC Q 0 0 0 rg BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 7.347 Tm (http://stellar-one.com/nuclear/staff_reports/summary_WASH1400.htm \(2 of\ 8\)10/19/2005 10:47:09 AM)Tj ET EMC endstream endobj 243 0 obj<>stream /Artifact <>BDC 0 0 0 rg 0 i BT /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 0 Ts 100 Tz 0 Tr 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 780.347 Tm (TMI-2 Reports Summary - Wash 1400)Tj ET EMC /WebCaptureBG BMC /WebCaptureFN <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n /Artifact <>BDC Q /CS0 cs /P0 scn 9.741 18 602.259 756 re f EMC EMC EMC /Article <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n 0 0 0 rg BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 263.8735 754.9179 Tm (assure that )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (any such use )Tj T* (in the past will )Tj T* (be corrected )Tj T* (as )Tj T* (appropriate. In )Tj T* (particular, in )Tj T* (light of the )Tj T* (Review Group )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (conclusions )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (on accident )Tj T* (probabilities )Tj T* (the )Tj T* (Commission )Tj T* (does not )Tj T* (regard as )Tj T* (reliable the )Tj T* (Reactor )Tj T* (Safety Study's )Tj T* (numerical )Tj T* (estimate of the )Tj T* (overall risk of )Tj T* (reactor )Tj T* (accident.)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (With respect )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (to the )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (component )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (parts of the )Tj T* (study, the )Tj T* (Commission )Tj T* (expects the )Tj T* (staff to make )Tj T* (use of them as )Tj T* (appropriate, )Tj T* (that is, where )Tj T* (the data base )Tj T* (is adequate )Tj T* (and analytical )Tj T* (techniques )Tj T* (permit. Taking )Tj T* (due account of )Tj T* (the )Tj T* (reservations )Tj T* (expressed in )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (the Review )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (Group Report )Tj T* (and in its )Tj T* (presentation )Tj ET EMC /Article <>BDC BT /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 174.3623 383.9242 Tm ( )Tj ET EMC /Article <>BDC 0.2 0.8 0.6 rg BT /TT1 1 Tf 10.4902 0 0 10.4902 501.6856 757.5139 Tm (Struggle for )Tj 0 -1.64 TD (Excellence)Tj 0 0 0 rg /TT0 1 Tf 13.6373 0 0 13.6373 555.92 740.3145 Tm ( )Tj ET EMC /Artifact <>BDC Q 0 0 0 rg BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 7.347 Tm (http://stellar-one.com/nuclear/staff_reports/summary_WASH1400.htm \(3 of\ 8\)10/19/2005 10:47:09 AM)Tj ET EMC endstream endobj 244 0 obj<>stream /Artifact <>BDC 0 0 0 rg 0 i BT /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 0 Ts 100 Tz 0 Tr 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 780.347 Tm (TMI-2 Reports Summary - Wash 1400)Tj ET EMC /WebCaptureBG BMC /WebCaptureFN <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n /Artifact <>BDC Q /CS0 cs /P0 scn 9.741 18 602.259 756 re f EMC EMC EMC /Article <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n 0 0 0 rg BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 263.8735 755.7867 Tm (to the )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (Commission, )Tj T* (the )Tj T* (Commission )Tj T* (supports the )Tj T* (extended use )Tj T* (of probabilistic )Tj T* (risk )Tj T* (assessment in )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (regulator )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (decisionmaking )Tj T* (\(sic\).)Tj -6.4 -2.72 Td ( It is important to note that the Risk )Tj T* (Assessment Review Group, while critizing )Tj T* (\(sic\) the risk assessment of WASH 1400 )Tj T* (per se, commended the description of )Tj T* (accident sequences and the "fault tree/)Tj T* (event tree" approach as an analytic tool for )Tj T* (quantifying probabilities of accidents.)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (The failure of a pressurizer relief valve to )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (close is discussed in WASH 1400 and its )Tj T* (likelihood was predicted on the basis of )Tj T* (actual experience with relief valves. WASH )Tj T* (1400 goes on to state that normal response )Tj T* (to this failure is actuation of emergency )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (core cooling to avoid excessive loss of )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (water from the reactor. It states that failure )Tj T* (to remove heat from the core could lead to )Tj T* (core meltdown or damage and that )Tj T* (operator action is required to prevent )Tj T* (meltdown. \(In TMI-2 the operators turned )Tj T* (off the emergency core cooling system.\))Tj 0 -2.72 TD (Although the absolute risk assessment of )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (WASH 1400 was questioned, the message )Tj T* (that the reactor accident risk is dominated )Tj T* (by the small- break loss-of-coolant accident )Tj T* (and by transients initiated accidents is quite )Tj T* (clear and was not contested. Thus, )Tj T* (emphasis should have been given in )Tj T* (reactor research, design considerations, )Tj T* (operator training, and safety procedures to )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (the amelioration of these events. This does )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (not seem to be the case. NRC and the )Tj T* (industry are still focusing on the "design )Tj T* (basis \(large\) accidents" that admittedly )Tj T* (have great consequence but low probability )Tj ET EMC /Artifact <>BDC Q 0 0 0 rg BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 7.347 Tm (http://stellar-one.com/nuclear/staff_reports/summary_WASH1400.htm \(4 of\ 8\)10/19/2005 10:47:09 AM)Tj ET EMC endstream endobj 245 0 obj<>stream /Artifact <>BDC 0 0 0 rg 0 i BT /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 0 Ts 100 Tz 0 Tr 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 780.347 Tm (TMI-2 Reports Summary - Wash 1400)Tj ET EMC /WebCaptureBG BMC /WebCaptureFN <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n /Artifact <>BDC Q /CS0 cs /P0 scn 9.741 18 602.259 756 re f EMC EMC EMC /Article <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n 0 0 0 rg BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 755.7867 Tm (of occurrence.)Tj /TT1 1 Tf 0 -2.693 TD (LESSONS THAT SHOULD HAVE BEEN )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (LEARNED FROM WASH 1400)Tj /TT0 1 Tf 0 -2.747 TD (WASH 1400 contains three important )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (messages. These involve expected )Tj T* (frequency of accidents, methods for )Tj T* (improving reactor safety, and the most )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (likely types of accidents. Perhaps it is a )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (fault of the report that these messages )Tj T* (were not emphasized, because the )Tj T* (conclusions most often associated with )Tj T* (WASH 1400 -- reactors are safe -- receives )Tj T* (the primary emphasis in the report. )Tj T* (Perhaps it is the fault of the NRC that more )Tj T* (effort was dedicated to criticize, WASH )Tj T* (1400 then was applied to understand its )Tj T* (messages. In fact, WASH 1400 predicted )Tj T* (that accidents could happen although most )Tj T* (would present little or no public hazard. )Tj ET 0 0 0 RG 0.584 w 10 M 0 j 0 J []0 d 185.946 439.402 m 416.039 439.402 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 441.1553 Tm (One message of WASH 1400 is that while )Tj ET 185.946 424.791 m 415.332 424.791 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 426.5439 Tm (nuclear accident risk is small compared to )Tj ET 185.946 410.179 m 400.441 410.179 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 411.9325 Tm (other societal risks, accidents similar to )Tj ET 185.946 395.568 m 382.213 395.568 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 397.3212 Tm (Three Mile Island should have been )Tj ET 185.946 380.956 m 235.357 380.956 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 382.7098 Tm (expected. These accidents were not )Tj T* (emphasized in WASH 1400, because they )Tj T* (do not contribute as significantly to risk as )Tj T* (the more severe core melt accidents \(See )Tj T* (Rasmussen deposition, Sept. 15 1979, pp. )Tj T* (35-36\).)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (The WASH 1400 study, in using the "event )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (tree" and "fault tree" methodologies, )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (borrowed from the aerospace industry, )Tj T* (actually revealed a "weak link" in the safety )Tj T* (of the Surry reactor. This led directly to a )Tj T* (change in inspection procedures at Surry )Tj T* (and reduced the probability of one major )Tj T* (risk contributing accident \(see Rasmussen )Tj T* (deposition, Sept. 15, 1979 pp. 26-29\) by a )Tj T* (factor of 20 \(p. 63, Main Report\). Thus, )Tj ET 185.946 128.667 m 403.193 128.667 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 130.4202 Tm (another message of WASH 1400 is that )Tj ET 185.946 114.055 m 418.766 114.055 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 115.8089 Tm (application of these methods to analysis of )Tj ET 185.946 99.444 m 417.402 99.444 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 101.1975 Tm (a specific reactor should be used to reveal )Tj ET 185.946 84.833 m 299.476 84.833 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 86.5861 Tm ("weak links" in safety. )Tj 0 -2.72 TD (Recently, NRC officials have endorsed a )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (plan to apply WASH 1400 techniques to the )Tj ET EMC /Artifact <>BDC Q 0 0 0 rg BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 7.347 Tm (http://stellar-one.com/nuclear/staff_reports/summary_WASH1400.htm \(5 of\ 8\)10/19/2005 10:47:09 AM)Tj ET EMC endstream endobj 246 0 obj<>stream /Artifact <>BDC 0 0 0 rg 0 i BT /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 0 Ts 100 Tz 0 Tr 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 780.347 Tm (TMI-2 Reports Summary - Wash 1400)Tj ET EMC /WebCaptureBG BMC /WebCaptureFN <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n /Artifact <>BDC Q /CS0 cs /P0 scn 9.741 18 602.259 756 re f EMC EMC EMC /Article <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n 0 0 0 rg BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 754.9179 Tm (analysis of other existing reactors for this )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (purpose \(see Levine deposition, Sept. 15, )Tj T* (1979, pp. 25-26\). 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A third message of )Tj ET 185.946 471.652 m 422.796 471.652 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 473.4056 Tm (WASH 1400 is the relative efforts in reactor )Tj ET 185.946 457.041 m 403.168 457.041 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 458.7943 Tm (safety research for large loss-of-coolant )Tj ET 185.946 442.43 m 418.084 442.43 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 444.1829 Tm (accidents, and transient initiated accidents )Tj ET 185.946 427.818 m 374.749 427.818 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 429.5715 Tm (should be consistent with priorities )Tj ET 185.946 413.207 m 353.77 413.207 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 414.9602 Tm (suggested by their relative risk )Tj ET 185.946 398.595 m 258.358 398.595 l S BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 400.3488 Tm (contributions. Generally, NRC has based )Tj T* (priorities on "good engineering )Tj T* (judgment" \(see Rasmussen deposition, )Tj T* (Sept. 15, 1979, pp. 56-57\), although the )Tj T* (Lewis Report and the NRC commissioners )Tj T* (have recently endorsed the use of WASH )Tj T* (1400 techniques to carry out more )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (effectively the licensing. In fact, the NRC )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (staff has successfully applied the )Tj T* (techniques to prioritize safety issues, )Tj T* (overpressurizing of vessels, and )Tj T* (optimization of inspection time intervals )Tj T* (\(see Rasmussen deposition, Sept. 15. )Tj T* (1979, pp. 58-59\).)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (It should be noted with regard to small-)Tj 0 -1.2 TD (break loss-of-coolant accidents \(LOCAs\) )Tj T* (that it was thought by NRC that safety )Tj T* (systems designed to accommodate large )Tj T* (LOCAs would necessarily be adequate to )Tj T* (deal with small LOCAs \(see Budnitz )Tj T* (deposition, Aug. 27, 1979, pp. 28-30\). It )Tj T* (should have been clear from WASH 1400 )Tj T* (treatment of PORV transient- initiated )Tj T* (LOCAs that such was not the case. )Tj ET EMC /Artifact <>BDC Q 0 0 0 rg BT /T1_0 1 Tf 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 7.347 Tm (http://stellar-one.com/nuclear/staff_reports/summary_WASH1400.htm \(6 of\ 8\)10/19/2005 10:47:09 AM)Tj ET EMC endstream endobj 247 0 obj<>stream /Artifact <>BDC 0 0 0 rg 0 i BT /T1_0 1 Tf 0 Tc 0 Tw 0 Ts 100 Tz 0 Tr 8.7668 0 0 8.7668 18 780.347 Tm (TMI-2 Reports Summary - Wash 1400)Tj ET EMC /WebCaptureBG BMC /WebCaptureFN <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n /Artifact <>BDC Q /CS0 cs /P0 scn 9.741 18 602.259 756 re f EMC EMC EMC /Article <>BDC q 0 18 612 756 re W* n 0 0 0 rg BT /TT0 1 Tf 12.1761 0 0 12.1761 185.9462 755.7867 Tm (Instead, WASH 1400 was taken by NRC as )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (an affirmation of their good regulatory work )Tj T* (\(see Budnitz deposition, Aug. 27, 1979 pp. )Tj T* (33\).)Tj 0 -2.72 TD (Further, procedural considerations inhibit )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (the application of WASH 1400 techniques. )Tj T* (It is very difficult to apply properly the )Tj T* (techniques, and few people are trained or )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (experienced in such work \(see Levine )Tj 0 -1.2 TD (deposition, Sept. 15, 1979 pp. 20-21\). 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